An Index shows evidence of what’s being represented. A good example is using an image of smoke to indicate a fire.

An Index shows evidence of what’s being represented. A good example is using an image of smoke to indicate a fire.

A Symbol has no resemblance between the signifier and the signified. The connection between them must be culturally learned. Numbers and alphabets are good examples. There’s nothing inherent in the number 9 to indicate what it represents. It must be culturally learned.

A pictogram (pictograph) uses a  graphic symbol of a physical object to represent the meaning of that thing.

A logogram (logographic) is a sign or character representing a word or phrase, such as those used in shorthand and some writing systems.

An ideogram (ideographic) uses a symbol made of shapes to represent an idea without indicating the sounds used to say it.

Oracle (Oracle bone script) was the ancestor of modern Chinese characters engraved on oracle bones—animal bones or turtle plastrons and is the oldest form of Chinese writing.

Clay tablets were used in ancient Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Hittites languages for over 3,000 years. Scribes used a reed stylus to impress characters on tablets made from water-cleaned clay. The tablets were usually dried in the sun or sometimes fired in kilns. Documents were archived in libraries where they could survive for millennia.

There were no written records from the Incas. The Quipu, knotted ropes, was all that left behind  from their earliest civilizations.Quipus date back to around 2600 BC and were used throughout the Inca reign over the Andes. The Quipu are knotted strings for collecting data, keeping records, calendrical information, monitoring tax, census records, and military organization. The colors, knots, and even the distances between the knots enabled people to identify the type of object or the characteristics of the population being recorded.

Dialects are variations of a language that occur in specific regions, social groups, or communities. These variations can include differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and even cultural references. Dialects often develop due to geographical isolation, social factors, or historical influences, leading to distinct linguistic features within a language.

A creole language is a stable, fully developed natural language that arises from the mixing and simplifying of different languages. It typically emerges in communities where people with different native languages need to communicate. Creole languages often incorporate elements from several different languages, and they evolve as they are passed down from generation to generation. Creoles have distinct grammar and vocabulary and are spoken as a native language by a community of speakers. They are fascinating examples of linguistic and cultural blending.

Body language refers to the non-verbal signals and movements that people use to communicate their thoughts, feelings, and intentions. It includes facial expressions, gestures, posture, eye movements, and other body movements. Body language can convey a wide range of emotions and messages, often unconsciously, and is an important aspect of human communication.

Sign language is a visual means of communication that uses gestures, facial expressions, and body movements to convey messages. It is used by deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals as their primary mode of communication. Sign languages are fully developed languages with their own grammar and vocabulary, and they vary across different regions and countries. American Sign Language (ASL) and British Sign Language (BSL) are examples of distinct sign languages used in the United States and the United Kingdom, respectively.

Endangered languages are languages that are at risk of becoming extinct. This can happen when a language is no longer spoken by younger generations, usually due to factors such as globalization, cultural assimilation, or government policies that promote dominant languages. When a language loses its speakers, it also loses its cultural and historical significance. Efforts are made by linguists and communities to document, preserve, and revitalize endangered languages to prevent their disappearance from the world.

Dead languages are languages that no longer have any native speakers or communities actively using them for everyday communication. These languages have fallen out of common use and are not passed down to new generations as a mother tongue. However, dead languages often continue to be studied and used in specific contexts, such as in academia, religious ceremonies, or historical research. Latin and Ancient Greek are examples of well-known dead languages.

Extinct languages are languages that no longer have any native speakers. These languages were once spoken by communities but over time, due to various reasons such as cultural changes, migration, or social and political factors, they fell out of use and eventually became obsolete. Studying extinct languages is important for understanding human history, culture, and linguistic evolution.